‘The Serbs must be disposed of, and that right soon.’

‘thick and thin’ … adding … ‘The earlier Austria attacks the better.’

1. Population Instability

The truth was that there were many countries and population groups unhappy with existing conditions.

Austria-Hungary was an empire in decline, with many unhappy inhabitants who wanted freedom, and the same was true in the Ottoman (or Turkish) empire.

The German and Russian rulers were also concerned about the dissatisfaction of their ethnic minorities. All three empires were faced by demands for more democracy, or, in Russia’s case, for any democracy at all.

By European standards, Russia was a backward country, especially as far as government was concerned. The wealthy still had all the power, and the state was run by a dictatorial emperor or Tsar, answerable to no one.

2. Territorial Ambitions in Europe

Germany had become a strong, inventive, industrialised country with an efficient and disciplined workforce. Growth and expansion, especially to the east became a popular cry. If they were going to expand eastwards, Russia was going to he the loser.

In Italy, there were those who wanted to take territory from Austria-Hungary and to control the Adriatic Sea.

3. Previous Grievances & Suspicions

4. Naval & Empire Rivalries

Both Britain and France had to cope with the jealousies of others, especially Germany. This German jealousy found expression, both in quarrels with France over territories not yet part of anyone’s empire, and in the passing of the Second Naval Law in 1900, which led to a race between Germany and Britain to build bigger and better battleships. The Kaiser, had summoned Admiral von Tirpitz in 1897 and told him:

5. The Clash of Personalities

Tsar King and Kaiser

Add to these various instabilities the characters of the leading rulers, whether royal or parliamentary, and it is easier to see why the atmosphere became suddenly explosive. For example, the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, a grandson of Queen Victoria, suffered from a withered arm and a massive inferiority complex. He was by all accounts coarse and abrasive. His uncle, King Edward VII, treated him with jovial contempt whilst his cousin Tsar Alexander III disliked his ‘aggressive amiability’ and distrusted him.

Of more significance was Wilhelm’s falling out with the British. As Britain’s expansion in southern Africa frustrated German ambitions, Wilhelm gave encouragement to the Transvaal Boers and suggested that Germany should declare a protectorate over the Transvaal and send troops. It was at this point that the Kaiser realised that Germany could not take on Britain at sea, and began the expansion of the German navy. Wilhelm’s aggressive approach was matched in Britain.

6. Powerful War Machines

This may be seen as a symptom of the other issues but the fact remains that in the last twenty years of the 19th century the naval and military expenditure of the major powers had doubled and, in the first decade of the 20th century, it doubled again.

Coupled with militaristic nature of Prussian society and the fact that rulers of 3 of the countries were autocrats – not accountable to their people – it meant that these powerful war machines could be used on a whim. The German military comanders were particularly belligerent, after all – armies like wars. That’s what they are created for.

7. Chaos in the Balkans

8. System of Alliances

In the 19th century, the major European powers had gone to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900.

It all started in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Then, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement failed because Austria-Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria-Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken.In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include Italy in what became the Triple Alliance.

Bismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germany’s side to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia. However when Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was compelled to retire and his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised.

In 1892, the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention. While these agreements did not formally ally Britain with France or Russia, they made British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia a possibility, and the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the Triple Entente.

Thus an intricate web of alliances was in place by 1914 so that pulling on one of the strands would radiate out to affect all the countries ensnared by the web.